Random Physics Articles

How Are Diamonds Formed?

Sat, 26 Jan 2008 00:00:00 -0600

What do loose diamonds have in common with a pile of coal? More than you might think; in fact in geological terms, loose diamonds are nothing more than glorified lumps of coal. The differences are:

- the arrangement of the carbon atoms
- how each material is formed

Even when it comes to the formation of diamonds, the difference between processes is one of degree rather than mechanics. Here then is some interesting information for potential buyers of wholesale certified diamonds.

Carbon is Carbon

Some may remember an episode of the old "Superman" TV series from the 1950s in which Clark Kent created a diamond by compacting a lump of coal in his fist. While it is doubtful that even the "Man of Steel" could exert such preternatural geologic forces as take place deep in the earth, the concept illustrated was essentially correct - those loose diamonds that eventually wind up at diamond dealers who sell them to jewelers are made of carbon that has been subjected to extremely high pressures of 60 kilobars (for comparison, that's 60,000 times normal air pressure at sea level) and temperatures of over 2300 degrees Fahrenheit (structural steel melts at around 1520° F)!

The pressure and heat needed to create diamond is found only at the earth's lithosphere where the crust meets the upper mantle - about 90 - 240 miles beneath the surface. Diamonds can also form when a meteorite strikes the surface of the earth, creating similar conditions or are carried on within the meteorite (some diamonds do come from outer space!).

Coal on the other hand is formed from the decaying remains of ancient plant matter that has also been compressed by geologic forces, but much closer to the surface. In chemical terms, carbon atoms that make up carbon molecules are arranged in a flat, hexagonal pattern, making them much more brittle. In diamond however, they are arranged in a tetrahedral, or box-like structure. This is what accounts for the hardness of loose diamonds.

Can One Turn Into the Other?

Eventually, if a coal deposit sinks low enough into the earth and is subjected to high pressure and temperature, it can become diamond. Theoretically, diamond could also change into coal, if kept free of chemical reactions that color the gems and stabilize the surface, then subjected to a vacuum. This is unlikely outside of controlled laboratory conditions, however.

Loose Diamonds Are Made, Not Born

What we refer to as loose diamonds do not occur naturally. Once diamond is mined, it is categorized into "industrial grade" and "gem grade." The latter category is what is subject to diamond appraisal, and naturally is of primary interest to diamond dealers.

The raw diamond is cut into loose diamonds, then carefully carved and shaped by craftsmen into forms suitable for decorative jewelry. This stage can have a great impact on the value of loose diamonds as determined by a diamond appraisal, and must be done with painstaking care and uncommon skill.

Wholesale certified diamonds must also be analyzed and graded by a professional gemology lab. It is here that the stones are evaluated for carat, color and clarity. Along with the results of the diamond appraisal> which evaluates the cut, they provide the basis of valuation.

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Jonathon Blocker specializes in diamond appraisal, loose diamonds, and wholesale certified diamonds. He is known among diamond dealers as an expert in his field. He is a consultant for GemFind.net, a trusted name in the jewelry industry since 1999.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

Big Bang Booming - Back to the Future

Fri, 10 Feb 2006 00:00:00 -0600

Theoretical cosmologists spend much of their time perfecting what is now known as the 'Big Bang' theory. This concept originates from ideas percolating in the minds of scientists, theologians and astronomers down through the ages. However, much of what they consider as proof for the 'Big Bang' is dependent upon uncontrolled experimentation that is molded to meet their expectations.

Then God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. This ancient description of the creation of the universe found in the Book of Genesis may be accurate after all. The big bang theory describes the beginning of the universe as having been precipitated from an infinitesimally small point. In this small volume, all matter and energy was concentrated until its contents exploded in either a smooth expansion or an incredibly violent energetic explosion that formed the planets, stars and galaxies. Originally this theory had competition from what is called the 'steady state' theory whereby the universe is forever expanding and new matter and energy is created spontaneously within the space left by the receding galaxies. However, empirical observations have directed astronomers and scientists into the acceptance of the big bang model. But how did we get to this point in our understanding?

In the early part of the twentieth century the American astronomer Vesto Slipher and the German Carl Wirtz made some important astronomical discoveries. Using spectral analysis, Slipher deciphered the mixtures of gases contained in planetary atmospheres as well as nebulae. What distinguishes his findings is the discovery that most if not all galaxies outside of our own demonstrate what is called a 'Red Shift.' This shift is simply a change in the wavelength of the light emitted by those objects under investigation towards a longer wavelength. Wirtz similarly catalogued many red shifts of the nebulae which he chose to study. But it was still to early for them to realize the full potential meaning of their observations. That would wait until Einstein's General Relativity would be interpreted by other scientists through further mathematical analysis.

His contemporaries demonstrated to Einstein that his new Theory of General Relativity published in 1916 was not compatible with a 'static' universe of space time. The theory predicted an expanding or collapsing universe but not a fixed cosmos. Because he personally believed the universe to be an invariable space time continuum, Einstein engaged in a degree of scientific legerdemain. To correct what he perceived to be as 'flaws' in his theory he added the contrivance of a cosmological constant known as lambda to force the static universe into reality. Einstein's view of perfection in an unchanging space time continuum had led him down a blind alley as much as Aristotle's concept of perfection had brought that great philosopher into the error of believing in a static Earth at the center of the universe.

But even with the addition of the cosmological constant lambda, the universe was still found to be unstable and this whole affair would later be viewed by Einstein as his "greatest blunder." His cosmological acrobatics behind him, Einstein yielded the stage to others for a clearer understanding of his own theory. It fell to Alexander Alexandrovich Friedmann to consider the consequences of General Relativity without the constant lambda interfering with his study of these relationships. In doing so, the Russian mathematician and cosmologist derived the solution which predicts an ever expanding cosmological structure (1922), a prediction which was disagreeable with Einstein's concept of universal perfection. A couple of years later, Friedmann published his findings in "About the Possibility of a World with Constant Negative Curvature of Space." But the entire hypothetical construct still lacked a complete verbalization mathematically and theoretically.

Enter the Reverend Father Georges Lemaitre, a Catholic priest from Belgium. Rev. Fr. Lemaitre provided the equations necessary to formulate the basis of Big Bang theory in his work entitled "Hypothesis of the Primeval Atom." He postulated that the universe began as a primordial atom of infinitesimal volume and enormous mass energy as well as space and time and everything else comprising the future universe. At some point the universe began with the explosion of this super atom. Lemaitre published his theoretical ideas between the years 1927 and 1933 and speculated that the movement of the nebulae demonstrated the validity of the explosion of his cosmic super atom. Unfortunately, he also wrongly believed that cosmic rays might be an after effect of the super atom's big bang. These are now known to be generated not from a universal conflagration but from galactic sources unrelated to the big bang.

However, the new theory still lacked a major source of observational support. This would be provided by Edwin Hubble's observations of the redshift of galaxies. Taking up where Slipher and Wirtz left off, Hubble employed a novel technique to discern the properties of the galactic movements. By choosing to observe stars that are known as Cepheid Variables he could more accurately make measurements. Cepheids are a type of star that brighten and darken and lighten back up in regular periods of time that are well known. Cepheids that have identical cycle times of brightening darkening and brightening again also have identical or nearly identical luminosity. Thus, if one compares the length of the cycle to the amount of light apparent to the observer it is possible to accurately prepare an estimate of the distance to the cepheid.

In this manner, Hubble had found that the nebulae or galaxies exhibited a galactic red shift; in other words, that galaxies were receding away from ours at a speed which is correlated directly with the distance between our vantage point and the galaxy being studied. The further away the galaxies were the faster they appeared to be going in moving away from us. The results of these investigations is now known as Hubble's Law. Essentially, this law states that universe is in an ever expanding mode whereby the intergalactic distances continue to grow without bound into infinity. Hubble's Law depends upon the shifting of the wavelength of light and after having been delineated in 1929 has been subsequently proven over and over again. Further, Hubble's constant has been recalculated to a more 'perfect' value and retains a great probability of being 'recomputed' in the future based upon new observations.

Thus, it should be clear to the reader that our scientists have a fateful habit of introducing their preconceived notions of beauty into their models. From Aristotle's static Earth to Einstein's greatest blunder, the constant which forces a static universe, we proceed only from the wisdom of our weak minds. The more things change the more things stay the same. Man's hubris knows no limits in our attempts to understand things without the wisdom to comprehend its underlying meaning. Humble we are not. We are making the same mistakes we always have. Back to the future. To be continued...

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Michael Strauss is an engineer and author of Requiem for Relativity the Collapse of Special Relativity, a serious critique on the fallacies of Special Relativity. To contact the author visit: www.relativitycollapse.net or www.relativitycollapse.com

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

Solar Power, Let's Do a Favor to Ourselves

Tue, 12 May 2009 06:12:04 -0500

It is estimated that by the end of this century, we will run out of oil resources in the world. It is painful to even imagine a world that has lack of power. So smart people are adopting renewable sources of energies like the wave power, tidal power and hydro-electricity etc. And smarter people are switching to endless sources of energies like the wind and the solar power.

Today solar power system is one of the most popular sources of power all over the world. Solar power system works well for most items. That energy is mainly used for residential purposes like cooking, heating, lighting etc. In addition, more benefit has seen in residential and commercial purpose. Because once you set the system you don't need to set it up again. This makes the solar panels more cost effective. It can also be mentioned that, using solar power is not harmful for our mother earth.

Everyday sun heats the surface and generates more than enough power that is needed to fulfill the power needs of the total population throughout the year. Almost 1000watt solar energy is available on every square meter area of the ground on a clear day. This amount is enormous! If we use some part of it properly, the power problems for of the world will become history. Why not use what is excess rather than exhausting a natural resource?

On top of all these features, the money that is needed for setting up a solar power system is cheaper than any other. The maintenance cost is also minimal and it is almost like the "install and forget" methods. Social awareness is growing rapidly throughout the USA. In North Carolina, thousand houses are using this system to save money as well as to save our environment.

It is high time that we changed our habits too, as we have caused enough damage to the world as it is. Apart from some negligible problems like rains and cloudy days, the solar panels are a great way to quench the power thirst of homes and offices. So let's go green and save money along the way!

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David Brown is an expert consultant for Solar Energy. If you are interested in our Solar Energy Services, Charlotte Solar Power, Charlotte Solar Energy, Solar Energy NC. Contact me at Tel. (704) 491-5737
North Carolina solar power and solar energy

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Poison Ivy and what it means to you when affected by it

Wed, 08 Apr 2009 02:32:24 -0500

Poison Ivy is a plant that is widely found through the majority of of North America and is known in two main varieties – Western, or Pacific, and Atlantic. The concern with Poison Ivy, which grows as ground cover and can eventually be seen as large bushes, is that it contains an oil – Urushiol – that, when it comes into contact with our skin, causes very unpleasant blistering and irritation.
It is vital to understand that the oil occurs not just in the leaves but in every part of the plant, including the root and the stem, and it is the immune system reacting against the poison, as it seeps into the skin, that is the root of the pain we experience.
Why Poison Ivy is poisonous
It may seem odd to us that at plant should be poisonous, but like many living things Poison Ivy has its part in the ecosystem. The way it grows is a guide as it is used as shelter for lower growing plants and ground dwelling animals, and the majority of these are, unlike humans, not affected by the oil.
Furthermore, Poison Ivy supplies berries that are an important foodstuff for a great number of bird species.
How to know the symptoms and more about Urushiol oil.
The patient will very quickly suffer from irritation in the skin, combined with severe itching and inflammation in the infected area. The skin will become darker and a burning irritation will occur, and in a short while blisters will form along with the rash.
Suffering can go on for many weeks or may be done with within days, and an individual case is different. It is suggested that cooling the skin is a good antidote and also prevents further infection.
There are various important points that people need to get to know about Urushiol oil, and the first is that it is very potent indeed. Research has proven that a small amount of the oil the size of a pin-head could be enough for 500 people, and as it is not a water based substance it will not evaporate.
The latter mentioned presents a major difficulty as it means the oil can stay on items it has been in contact with for as long as, and maybe longer than, a year. This gives us the possibility of re-infection, or of an individual who has not been in contact with the plant being affected. Clothes, shoes, tools and pets can all be party to the oil, and the very small amounts believed to cause suffering give it greater potency.
Gloves and coats, together with boots, are among the commonest causes of Poison Ivy infection and should be cleaned thoroughly if contamination is suspected.
How anyone can become infected
There are numerous ways that an individual can come into contact with the oil from Poison Ivy, and transfer from affected clothing and other items is one reason as we have already noted.
The reason that we suffer when having encountered the oil is because of the instant reaction it promotes, and it is notable that direct contact with the plant is not vital to induce a reaction.
If Poison Ivy is burned the smoke is contaminated with vaporised oil, and even coming into contact with this concoction can induce an attack. It has been said that a 100 year old plant once affected a sufferer, an indication of how much troube the plant can be.
Anything that has been in contact with the sap of the plant must be avoided, therefore, and animals kept away from Poison Ivy bushes.
How to look after a sufferer of a Poison Ivy reaction
It is important that treatment is attempted immediately, and the best method is to wash the contaminated area in warm water. A popular recommendation is to use a very well tried antimicrobial soap and to do all one can to stop the patient from scratching, as this will spread the infection beyond its boundaries.
It is essential to score the blisters, too, and to give the area of infection exposure to the air. Keeping blisters attended to is imperative in order not to add infection.
Remember that it is just the oil that will allow the infection to spread, so contact with it should be treated with caution.
The condition will, at some point, clear up completely, but there are treatments available for the irritation and for the worst reactions. It is the domain of the individual whether to wait for it to subside or to invite further help. Some of us are fortunate in that they have no sensitivity to Poison Ivy, but these are scarece and most of us would be infected by coming into contact with the bush.
If one finds Poison Ivy the best advice a man can give is the most logical – avoid it very carefully and don’t let your pet near it.

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Nadeeka Johnson is an experienced article writer with over a 1,000 articles covering a wid variety of topical written at www.allstop.com/poison-ivy/poison-ivy-treatment

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

Flip a Coin - Quantum Style

Sun, 25 Nov 2007 00:00:00 -0600

Flip a coin. Think about that cliché statement, but one which actually carries a lot of meaning behind it. Before you decide to do this, there is neurological activity in your brain preceding the event. There are conscious and unconscious processes about how to hold the coin, how much pressure to use, how fast, that all take place in milliseconds. And don't overlook the nanosecond timing that exists on the microscopic scale of your physiology.

Then when the coin goes up, what are the possibilities? Think about the rare chance that the coin could land on its side. It might sound bizarre, though every one of us has probably thought of this. Now I offer a question to break the silence. What is the actual moment that decides the outcome of the coin? You might think when it left your hand. While this is undoubtedly true for the most part, according to Newtonian physics, the Quantum world is a completely different story.

Quantum Mechanics tells us that everything exists as energy. The funny thing about energy, is there are no certainties. At this scale when Classical Mechanics gives way to Quantum processes, even nanosecond timing would seem like eternity. Where the Quantum shines is how it shows us that all outcomes are just as likely. What are the odds (Newtonian classical) or probabilities (quantum), that the coin may never land. If the probability waves collapsed on a specific reality, the coin could disappear out of existence, appear in another dimension, or a myriad of other possibilities that are all just as likely.

If that sounds crazy, think about this. When you catch that coin, are you in the same reality as when you lofted it?

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Thomas Sweet is a certified hypnotist, who received an MBA and is an undergrad in Physics.

He studies several forms of energy such as Reiki, Access Energy and Shamanism. He believes

that there is a little truth in every study, and seeks to help others find these pieces

of the Puzzle of Life as he calls it.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

Physics Overview

Mon, 29 Jun 2009 05:30:02 -0500

Physics is a natural science. It is the study of matter and its motion through space time and all that derives from these, such as energy and force. Physics is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave.

Physics is the science of matter and energy and of interactions between the two, grouped in traditional fields such as acoustics, optics, mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Modern extensions also include atomic and nuclear physics, cryogenics, solid-state physics, particle physics, and plasma physics.

Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from the smallest sub-atomic particles, to the largest galaxies. The most basic parts of physics are mechanics and field theory. Mechanics is concerned with the motion of particles or bodies under the action of given forces. The physics of fields is concerned with the origin, nature, and properties of gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, and other force fields.

Physics uses the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory, using a methodical approach to compare the implications of the theory in question with the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and observations conducted to test it.
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics.

Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them. It may also be called "high energy physics", because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high energy collisions of other particles, as can be detected in particle accelerators. Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Applied physics is a general term for physics research which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering.

Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, Statics , a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other structures.

Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts. In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers. In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear.
You can also see this http://physicshandbook.com/index.htm

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http://physicshandbook.com/topics.htm
http://physicshandbook.com/definitions.htm

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Students Worldwide Are Learning How To Excel In School From Home.

Sun, 23 Oct 2005 00:00:00 -0500

Today, children are expected to earn high grades in all of their classes, in spite of the failing public school system. Parents can still remember when an education was essential in preparing children for their livelihood.

Now what many public school systems offer is overcrowded classrooms. Teachers are being grossly underpaid for their skills and overworked. Outdated learning material, metal detectors, violence, cuts in federal spending for education...

Remedial help is sorely needed for some students so they can keep up. If a child can't receive the education they deserve, how are they expected to prosper in society? Parents, students, and the public school systems already know that this is a huge problem, but who can they turn to for help?

More and more parents are turning to tutoring to supplement their children's education and to further their children's abilities to be successful in the future.

Tutoring is a $4 Billion business that is growing steadily. Under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, supplemental educational services are funded by school districts with a portion of their allocation from the U.S. Department of Education.

The Federal Government allocates as much as $1800 per eligible student, but so far, less than 10 percent of eligible students are electing to participate, according to providers' estimates.

One of the toughest challenges is simply convincing parents that the service is free to them. Parents will often hang up when sales reps for tutoring firms call to explain the program.

They think it is a scam because "free" usually means too good to be true. And sometimes parents simply don't want to acknowledge that their child needs help. Parents have been known to ask "What's wrong with my child that he needs to be tutored?"

In spite of these challenges, online tutoring, or Interactive Distance Learning (IDL) is expected to grow at an unprecedented rate. IDL is where a student receives live, one-on-one tutoring in a virtual classroom setting or in large group sessions over a video conferencing system.

Students who have access to a computer at home or in school can log in to the system and have a live tutor help them day or night. Subjects like Math, English, Calculus, World History, Latin, French, Chemistry, Physics and many others can be taught to them by certified tutors/teachers.

And there are online tutoring systems that even supply their own courseware library, featuring some of the finest programmed learning courses in computer sciences, management and academic subjects.

Children who receive one-on-one remedial tutoring have been known to have increased self-esteem and self confidence, increased focus and lengthened attention span.

My advice to parents everywhere is to find an online tutoring system that focuses on academic remedial courses for ages K-12, as well as for college students.

Why not give your child the best chance at passing each class with the help he or she needs? There's federal money allocated for the parents to provide online remedial help for their children. Also, parents are able to schedule tutoring sessions to fit into their time schedule.

In the long run, everyone shares in the child's accomplishment.

Copyright (c) 2005 by David M. Rolle'

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David M. Rolle', a Online Tutoring Franchise Owner, believes passionately in interactive distance learning for students that need remedial courses. Parents, students, school systems and entreprenuers worldwide interested in receiving information on on-line tutoring, visit Send a blank e-mail with "TutorBug Article" in the Subject line to homepay@peoplepc.com

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

Make believe or real – it all happens here

Tue, 19 Feb 2008 00:00:00 -0600

If you are one of those who rushes home from work because it is time for X-files, or your favorite movie, Alien is being screened, then UFO's and paranormal activities must interest you a lot. Earlier, people would go to libraries to look for information on these aspects, and there weren’t many references available since very few believed in these supernatural powers. But today, with the advancement in technology and the introduction of Internet, anything and everything can be found on the web world.

There are millions of people across the world who believes in Ghosts, and UFO's, doing research or being part of groups. One such concept that has evolved in the recent past is that of social network website. These are a forum whereby like minded people can interact, make new friends from across the globe and connect to learn something new. Some have even sighted crop circles appearing out of the blue, which they believe is to have been done by UFO's or ghosts. For such experiences to be shared and for others who are into it to feel free on expressing their thoughts, this social network site forms a friendly platform. If they are from the same town or city, they could interact online, and then meet up offline as well. There are times when members make friends with other UFO lovers and have a meeting of sorts about the supernatural powers existence.

A place for believers of paranormal science to meet, and a chance for them to discuss, debate over the theories of flying saucer or alien existence. To become a member of the site, one needs to register, and fill out the profile page. This is so others visiting the member's page will know some information about them, and be able to connect better. you could list your favorite books, or TV shows on crop circles or the supernatural or give instances where you witnessed a UFO flying over your roof.

The sites allow members to post pictures, or videos to substantiate their beliefs and experiences. this gives it a very real feeling, and enables other members to identify the one's who share the same interests. Crop circles, ghosts are all make believe for some, whereas for members of the social network site, they are very much a part of reality.

When we tell a friend about Ghosts, or UFO's, they are likely to laugh at us or say we are dreaming. but for those who have unshakeable belief, they are for real. This is why this website is the best place for them to be a part of.

Among the explanations for crop circles are that they are man made, but there are others who firmly believe they are related to paranormal actions, and UFOs. These are the people who will be interested if someone is talking about the Roswell UFO instance, which happened way back in 1947. Due to their strong belief, and faith, these members are completely into UFO's and Ghosts.

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Alpine speaks about Social Network about paranormal and UFO. This Article is intended for everyone who is interested in paranormal
phenomena. (UFO, ghosts, crop circles and so on).

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

The secrets of the universe

Thu, 08 Dec 2005 00:00:00 -0600

The secrets of the universe
Written by: Kconnip

I would like to apologize in advance for any grammatical error in the book because I was writing in terms of what happened in the past, what is happening now and what will happen in the future; that is what could have happened, what may have happened, what should have happened, what did happen, what is happening, what will happen and what should happen.

THE UNIVERSE IS ENERGY, TIME AND CREATION ITSELF.
There is no limit to how long the universe has existed and there is no limit to how long it will exist. That is the universe has always existed and it will always exist. The universe has no beginning and it has no end. It was always here and it will always be here and thus its so-called age is infinite. The universe is time itself, it is creation itself, it is energy and it is limitless in time space and energy. The universe, the vacuum and energy making it up was not created, it has always and will always exist. The universe has been here for all of time, creation is the universe and its vacuum and energy can never be lost or destroyed.

Way, way, way before galaxies, solar system, stars (suns), planets, organisms, organic and inorganic substances and molecules, before ions, atoms, electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, even before the extremely small energy particles which make up electrons, protons, neutrons and photons the universe existed as a endless/ infinite vacuum in every direction, dimension and plane. And the infinite vacuum was filled to its entirety and capacity with energy in its simplest and purest form.

At every level of energy where negative and positive energy particles are present or exist neutral particles are needed to maintain order, organization, stability and leverage between the negatives and positives. And with certainty I can say this is true in atoms. In atoms electrons (the negatives), protons (the positives), and neutrons (the neutrals) all exist together and are maintained in the proper order and balance. Neutrons are needed in atoms to keep them stable, without the right amount of neutral the electrons and protons cannot work together and will not remain in the proper balance. If a positive or negative particle were removed from the atom, the atom would remain relatively the same. But if a neutral particle (a neutron) was removed from the atom the proper order could not be maintained and the entire atom could become disorganized and unstable and it will start to breakdown, splitting itself into pieces releasing an immense amount of energy until the pieces it has split into become stable again, with the proper balance between neutrons, protons and electrons. In an atom like a uranium atom the bonds within the atom between the electrons and protons would or could only remain together or in proper order in the presents of the right amount of neutrons. If a neutron is removed the bonds between the electrons and protons would become unstable and the atom would split releasing an immense amount of energy.

Back to the simple and pure energy, which were present in universe, these were the negative, positive and neutral energy particles that created the particles that will create the particle that make up neutrons and protons, and electrons. The high concentration of these simple and pure negative positive and neutral energy particles in the infinite universe over a period of time each type started colliding into each other and attaching to each other becoming permanently fused together and started to form more complex energy particles (those that make up protons and neutrons, and electrons).

Over a period of time the complex energy particles were in a higher concentration than the simple and pure energy particles and the complex one along with the simple ones started to attract each other, colliding and fusing together to create in a proportionally balance and organized way neutrons, electrons and protons and immediately after their creation the protons started to attract the electrons, but the bond would not and could not stay together until a neutron also took part in the bond. The bonding between the electrons, protons and neutrons in an organized 1:1:1 ratio all over the universe started to create simple atoms (that is hydrogen atoms: 1 neutron, 1 electron and 1 proton). The universe was now becoming filled with hydrogen atoms. Now with the proper balance between electrons, protons and neutrons the hydrogen atoms were now the largest, most organized and stable particles in the infinite universe.

With the creation of hydrogen atoms every where in the infinite universe the biggest and most important transition in the history of the endless universe was made pure energy (electrons, protons and neutrons) now started working together in an organized to create the simple atom / hydrogen atoms, thus giving rise to matter and mass and also giving rise to the very important force of gravity. And with the creation of atoms, energy and force such as light, heat, nuclear, sound, magnetic, frictional, electric, chemical, gravitational and mechanical started to immerge and becoming more active.

With the high concentration of hydrogen atoms now present in the universe and because of the presence of gravitational forces, the atoms started to attract each other, colliding and releasing large amounts of different forms of energy. The attracting atoms then started to create hydrogen cluster, the clusters then started to attract each other creating massive or extremely large hydrogen gas clouds. An infinite amount of these millions of light-years stretching hydrogen gas clouds then started popping up all over the infinite universe, revealing the vacuum of space between them.

These massive gas clouds with their high concentration of atoms and strong gravitational forces over a period of time continued to attract the atoms within it, thus contracting, becoming denser and more compacted revealing more of the vacuum of space between each of them. The massive gas clouds then started to become more organized, then started to have an energy and pressure build up in their innermost layer or massive tens of light-years in diameter atom fusing cores.

The cores of the massive clouds then started fusing hydrogen atoms to create heavier and more complex atoms, much like what our sun is doing right now but on a large scale. The massive clouds can now be called massive stars (massive energy releasing bodies with their individual radius about 200,800,000,000,000 km). Over a period of time the massive star continued to create and fuse heavy atoms, until a limit or point was reached where the energy being released in their core cause each of them to become highly unstable. The massive unstable stars then at different points in time and at different rates erupted in to a massive super supernova explosion releasing a burst of energy and matter in every direction out into the vacuum of space. The scattered matter and energy the formed massive clusters and fragments of star dust (all the elements in the periodic table) near the original location of each exploded massive star. The scattered matter and energy were now forming massive expanding galaxies. Depending on the rate, degree and size of the explosion of the massive stars the different galaxy, which were formed, had different shapes, shape such as spiral shapes, etc. over a period of time due to the high concentration of atoms and gravity within the expanding galaxies regular size stars (suns), planets, and solar system started to form in a deadly, high explosive but organized way within the galaxies, and even life was created in some of the galaxies.

The universe is now a endless/ infinite vacuum in every direction plane and dimension filled with an infinite amount of energy filled expanding galaxies. And with the galaxies within the universe expanding they will not remain organized forever.

The universe had no beginning and it has no end. It was always here and it age is thus infinite. The universe with its endless vacuum and the energy within it was always here but some time in different forms.

One reason why the universe is considered infinite in terms of its age is because in term of an atom, the amount of times an atom and the particles making it up can be broken down or split up to get smaller particles or fractions is infinite. That is because say you have a molecule of any element, you can split that molecule in to several atoms, then each of those atom can be split into electrons, protons and neutrons. Then each of those electrons, protons and neutrons can further be split in to even smaller particles, then those particles can be can be broken down to even smaller particles, then those small one to even smaller, then those smaller one and those smaller particles can continue to be split up or broken down to an infinite amount of smaller particles, even those infinite one can be broken down to a still infinite amount of smaller particles and you could continue for ever and never stop. And each of those infinite amount of small particles had to be constructed at some point by the universe from even smaller energy particles.

The new concepts on black hole physics, and the construction, destruction and reconstruction of galaxies.

The universe has the ability to have galaxies created, destroyed and reconstructed.

When a large enough star within a galaxy or when two galaxies meet, the galaxies will start to break down, that is the solar systems will start to be destroyed, through a series of extremely large explosion. The galaxies would be changed back to massive dust and gas clouds, because of the force of gravity the matter and energy in the massive clouds would then start to move towards one or two central location, revealing the vacuum of space, thus recreating the massive stars, which originally created the galaxies. Over a period of time the massive stars will become unstable and again scattering the matter it has gathered to recreate the galaxies or galaxies. And the universe can do this, has done this, is doing this and will continue to carry out this construction, destruction and reconstruction process. Because the universe is infinite is no limit to how many times this will be done and there is no limit to how long the process of construction, destruction and reconstruction of galaxies will take, that is it could take billions or trillions of years or even millions of billions.

Black holes:

In summary my theories will explain theoretically in detail that a black hole is not a wormhole nor a portal to some other dimension or universe and it is not a body which destroys matter but that is in fact a extremely large star with a extremely large mass and density, with a radius of about 200,800,000,000,000 km, which exert a extremely strong gravitational force, enough to pull in the entire galaxy or enough to make every star in the galaxy become a part of it. The black hole acquires its mass through a series of billions of massive and extremely powerful explosions along with its extremely strong and large gravitational field.

The laws of physics states that every object in the universe has gravitational forces between them. But for a body or object to have a large gravitational field or strong gravitational force the body has to have a large mass. The larger a body’s mass is the greater its gravitational field.

Therefore for a black hole to have such an extremely strong gravitational pull enough to suck in any material or matter near it, it has to have an extremely large mass, which would mean that it is made up of lots and lots of atoms (protons, electrons and neutrons). So that is why I have concluded that a black hole is not a wormhole that sucks up every thing but that it is instead a extremely large growing body with a extremely large mass, extremely large gravitational field and because of its large consist of lots and lots of energy. And also because of it large gravitational field it is able to attract bodies or objects from great distances, the bodies it is attracting would collide with each other to form clusters around it which would aid in its growth.

The creation of a black hole:

Any large star or sun with a stable core, any large star or sun which can or has the ability to with stand the bombardment and explosive power of millions of meteors and asteroids or the explosive force of several billion mega tone nuclear explosives has the ability to become a Black hole/ Growing star/ Giant star/ Mega star/ The large or massive bodies which were involved in the Big bang.

Say our sun was a bit larger and had a more stable core and it got hit by a or some large meteors, comets or asteroids or it got hit by large fragments from a planet or another sun which had exploded, which produces a series of explosion beneath surface of the sun. Breaking the chromosphere and some portions of the upper most parts of the photosphere in to millions of large segments or fragments. The average kinetic energy or temperature of the segments would be raised from thousands of degrees Celsius to hundreds thousands of degrees Celsius. The explosions within the or unstable state of the chromosphere and photosphere could shoot the millions of extremely hot segments at high velocities away from the sun, along with different kinds of deadly radiation in every direction.

These segments or high velocity fragments from the sun would amount to about 15 - 20% of the sun’s mass. The rest of the 80 – 85% of the sun would still remain intact and partially stable, and would still continue to produce more radiation, light and heat energy by nuclear fusion.

The segments or fragments would be moving at such high speed that they could easily escape the gravitational pull of the sun. If there isn’t any gravitational force between some of the fragments them selves and they were moving in straight lines, the force could be enough to carry them out of the solar system at high velocity.

The segments would at first be moving in a straight line away from the sun carrying hot dust, gases, solid and molten star dust (some of the metallic elements in the periodic table). After the segments have just left the vicinity of the sun they would start to attract each other because of the strong gravitational force between them. Some segments would continue at high velocity, while some would start to slow down and some would begin to speed up. Some small and medium size segments would begin to change direction speed due to their attraction to each other and to the larger ones. The change in direction and speed of some of the fragment would begin to cause collisions between the fragments within the outward moving wave of fragments. Some segments might escape from taking part in any of the collisions.

The collision between the fragments would at first create an outward moving cluster or cloud around the sun. The cluster would consist of the some material as the segments. The cluster would at first be moving outwards at a reasonably slow speed compared to the segments that had escaped the collisions, which formed the cluster.

Many of the escaped fragments will now be in direct collision curse with many other stars and planets. The direct collision of a segment with a planet or unstable sun or even a stable sun would be catastrophic, with unimaginable explosive power and could have a catastrophic effect on the galaxy and, or even the entire universe.

Say one of these segment were to collide with the earth it would have the explosive power of several billion nuclear bombs. The massive explosion would not only destroy every thing on the surface of the planet, but it would destroy the entire planet. The massive explosion caused by the segment along with the unstable core of the planet, would break the earth into thousands of trillions of pieces of hot and molten rocks and metals, and fast moving clusters of hot gases and dusts. The explosion would cause the fragments from the earth to scatter in ever direction away from the earth at extremely high velocities.

Some of the fragments would immediately be heading directly towards the sun and also towards the large surrounding the sun. About 40 – 45% of the fragments after the explosion would be trapped in the sun strong gravitational field. The high velocity fragments from the planet trapped in the sun’s gravitational field will begin to move towards the sun but would be slowed down and broken down into smaller pieces by the cluster surrounding the sun. The fragments, which were broken down, will now become a part of now inward moving cluster surrounding the sun. The strong gravitational field of the sun would begin to pull particles from the cluster towards it. By acquiring this mass the sun would start to grow. The larger or the more mass the sun has the greater and the stronger its gravitational field becomes.

The high velocity segments from the sun and the other 55 – 60% of the high velocity fragments from the earth would continue to move towards other stars and other bodies in the galaxy, causing a series of massive cosmic collisions and explosions. These collisions and explosions or cosmic chain reactions would mark the beginning of the destruction of the galaxy.

With the destruction of each planet and unstable star by the high velocity segments and fragments, the exploding bodies would distribute about 35 – 35% of their mass to the cluster surrounding the now growing sun thus enabling it to get bigger and as it grows its gravitational field also grows and becomes stronger. The grow sun would remain stable as it grows because the now slowly inward moving cluster surrounding it would slow down and break down all the large high speed fragments moving towards it, which are coming from planets and suns and other heavenly bodies, that had exploded throughout the galaxy.

The small particles of hot dust, rocks and gases close to the sun within the cluster would be pulled into the sun’s atmosphere by its strong gravitational field. The immense heat and radiation being produced by the sun would break down the already small particles in to their smallest form (atoms and molecules). The atoms and molecules would then be distributed on sun’s surface, causing its mass to become large, its volume and density to increase and its electro magnetic and gravitational field to become stronger and larger. This is when the growing sun is said to be a black hole and its growing gravitational field would now be capable of attracting or pulling objects (such as planets and other heavenly bodies) in other solar systems towards it.

Clusters like the one around the growing sun would not be formed around the billions of exploding unstable suns and planets. This is because the collisions, which form the cluster, depend on the size of the fragments and how strong the gravitational forces between these same fragments are. If the collisions to form the clusters do not begin to take place immediately after the explosion of the body, then the collision would not take place at any other time.

So, compared to the fragments from a stable star the fragments from an exploding unstable star or planet are relatively small but they move through space at a much higher speed, and the gravitational forces between them are very weak. The fragments from the stable sun are very large and the forces of attraction between them are very strong. They tend to attract each other more readily causing collisions, which form clusters. The explosive power of the fragments from the stable sun does not depend on their speed but on the large mass (size) and on the nuclear reactions taking place on and within them.

The fragments from the unstable suns and planets are very small and the gravitational force of attraction between them is very weak. If they do not begin to attract each other when they are close together, they are in the closest proximity to each other immediately after the explosion, then they would continue to move further and further apart with the gravitational attraction between them getting weaker and weaker. The explosive power of these fragments does not depend on their size or temperature but on the extremely high velocity at which they travel.

During the formation of the black hole or during the gathering of matter for the growing star, the star could become unstable and explode, scattering the matter it had gather back out at high velocity and temperature in every direction. This scattered matter would help to reform the partially destroyed galaxy.

If the star remains stable during the formation of the black hole and remains stable when it has stop growing or have collected all the matter near it in the galaxy, there are three possible out comes.

One of the out come is during the formation of this giant star (black hole), more than one was formed in a similar manner in other parts of the galaxy the mega stars, which are now extremely dense and with their gravitational fields extending for several thousand light years. Still continues to produce lots and lots of light, heat, and other forms of energy, starts to attract each other and the speed of the mega bodies starts to increase as they move closer and closer towards each other. With each mega star having the explosive power of several hundred trillion nuclear bombs. The massive bodies then begin to move faster and faster and closer and closer towards each other, increasing their temperature and explosive power. They then start to become unstable as their temperature increases to billions of degrees Celsius. They then collide at extremely speeds, creating a massive explosion, the second “Big Bang”, recreating this galaxy.

The second out come could be only one mega star (black hole) is created, which remain so stable it produces all its light and heat energy, all its nuclear reactions stops and it begins to cool. It stops producing its energy and begins to shrink or becomes compressed as it cools. Its density would then begin to increase, its volume would start to decrease but its mass would remain the same. This outcome would mean the end of the galaxy because the gravitational force of the mega body would be too great, the temperature would be too low (extremely low sub zero temperature) and there would be no source of light or any form of energy near the body. It would become one giant or massive dark body. The entire galaxy would be compressed into one giant dark and cold body, which would not be able to sustain life, and this would signify the end of life in the galaxy.

The third and final outcome: this outcome or the first outcome could be the outcomes, which recreates the galaxy or may have been the situations that originally created this galaxy, the big bang.

In the third out come, only one mega star is created, which remain stable as it produces its energy. The star continues to produce light and heat energy, through nuclear fusion. In this type of nuclear reactions or thermo nuclear reactions the mega star combine light elements (gases) to produce heavier elements (metals) within its core. It continues to combine these lighter elements until a point or limit is reached where there are no more light elements to be combined, so it has to find another way to produce energy. With the high temperature and pressure within the mega star, it would start to split atoms, splitting the heavy elements (such as metals) which it had produced back in to light elements (such as gases). The splitting of heavy elements by nuclear reactions to produce energy, within the massive star, would begin to cause a series of large nuclear explosions or a series of massive chain reactions, which would cause the mega star to become highly unstable.

In its unstable state the massive star would then erupted into a mega super supernova in one or several massive and violent explosions. This massive explosion would break the mega star into billions of trillions of molten fragments of different size (that is different mass, volume and density), which would be carrying with them a massive amount of stardust (most of the elements in the periodic table), that is a large amount of dust, gas and metallic particles. Which will be scattered in every direction from the location where the star was.

The massive and violent explosion of the mega star would be the “Big Bang” which would recreate the galaxy. The size and force of the big bang explosion would determine the size and shape of the galaxy that is whether it would be shaped like a large spiral or whether it would be shaped like a large loosely organized cluster or cloud. The big bang explosion would also determine the rate at which the galaxy would expand or the rate at which the fragments move away from the original location of the of the star which had exploded. The location in space where the massive star, which had exploded, was located would become the center of the galaxy.

The energy of all forms produced by the big bang explosion would also be moving with the wave of fast moving fragments and stardust a way from the center of the galaxy in every direction. All of the energy would remain long after the big bang but some would be change to different forms.

The large, medium and small fragments along with the star dust and gases from the explosion of the massive star would be the bodies or materials which would reform the solar systems, suns, planets, moons, meteors, asteroids and comets within the galaxy.

The size and mass and the amount of energy within the solar systems and the bodies within the solar systems would depend on the size and speed of the hot fast moving fragments, the amount of fragments and the strength of the gravitational forces between fragments.

I have several theories on how the solar system would be recreated; these theories are mostly modifications of other theories.

Of the fragments that broke off the mega star the fragments with the largest mass along with the largest volumes of stardust would be the bodies, which would reform stars (suns). The large fragments would have traveling with them, other small and medium size hot fragments and stardust; these would reform planet, moons and other heavenly bodies.

One theory:

Upon exploding, the hot, large, fast moving fragments would move in every direction away from the original location of the mega star. These large fragments, whose mass would be about the same as a normal sun’s mass, would have smaller fragments along with star dust and other small particle accompanying them or traveling with them. The small hot fragments, whose total mass would amount to about the same as several large rocky and gas planets, would be accompanying the hot, large and loosely formed fragments at high velocity, in a similar manner as how the tail of a comet travels or trail behind or accompany the head of the comet. In other words the head (coma and nucleus) of the comet would represent the large loosely formed stars (large fragments), while the long sparkly tail of the comet would represent the smaller fragments and stardust traveling behind the large loosely formed star.

Upon leaving the exploding mega star, nuclear reactions or chain reactions, that is the splitting of heavy elements to form light element would continue to take place within the large fragments and small fragments. In the large fragments the nuclear reactions would cause small portions of its outer layer to break off and become a part of its trailing tail. The reactions would further break up the small fragments making the tail in to smaller fragments and particles.

These nuclear reactions splitting atoms, would continue to take place within the loosely formed star and within the smaller fragments in its tail, until a limit or point is reached where most of the heavy elements within the star and its tail has been broken down or split up. By this time the loosely formed star and its tail would more start to resemble a large, fast moving cloud made of hot dust, gases and small fragments of heavy elements, with a more organized head and tail. Most of the mass, energy and gravitational force within the fast moving cloud would be located in its head (star), that is about 80% of the mass and energy within the fast moving cloud would be located in its loosely formed star, with a greater volume of star dust, light elements or gases and a much smaller volume of heavy metallic elements. Most of the heavy metallic elements would be located in the small fragments, which weren’t fully broken down by the nuclear reactions. These small would remain in or as a part of the tail of the dust and gas cloud.

Some possible out comes after the formation of this more organized dust, small metallic fragments and gas cloud is:

1. It could begin to slow down on its own due to the gravitational forces acting within it, between the large loosely formed star, the small fragments and the star dust which comprises mostly of gases.

2. It could be obstructed by the large gravitational field of another large dust cloud, which could cause it to start to change its direction and speed.

3. It move so close to the other large mass or dust and gas cloud, that the strong gravitational field of the other dust could cause it to lose some of its mass, that is a small amount of gas particles could break of and become a part of the other dust cloud. The gravitational force of the other cloud could be so strong that it not only cause some of the dust cloud to break off but it also cause the two to collide into each other.

Whatever the out come, upon slowing down the large dust and gas clouds would be the bodies or masses which would reform the solar systems within the galaxy.

Whatever the reason why the hot dust and gas cloud starts to slow down, when it does start to slow down it would start to become more organized due to the gravitational forces acting within it.

The strong gravitational force between the particles within the head of the dust cloud would cause the particles of gases and a few metallic particles to start to attract each other. As the particles within the head starts to attract, they would start to move towards its center, large numbers of collision would start to take place between the particles. This would cause the average kinetic energy or temperature and pressure within the head and its center would start to rise. As this start to take place the center of the head would start to combine atoms by thermo nuclear reaction to produce nuclear, light and heat energy. As the radiation in the center of the head (the soon to be core of a sun) increases, its gravitational pull on the rest of the head and on the tail of the dust cloud would also start-to-start to increase. This is because an increase in radiation would cause an increase in temperature, which would cause an increase in kinetic energy and with an increase in kinetic energy of the gas particles within the center of the head more random movement, vibrations and rotations of the gas particles would start to take place.

The strength of the gravitational field or force of a body depends on the amount of atoms and electrons within the body, the rate at which the atoms within the body move and the rate at which the electrons within the atoms of the body moves.

The increase in the movement of the atoms and the electrons within the center of the head and the increase in its gravitational field, would cause more gas, dust and metallic particles to become attracted to it and start to move towards it. The movement of the particles toward the center of the head would cause an increase in the mass and density of the center of the head that is there would be an increase the gases or light elements available for the thermo nuclear reactions now taking place in the center of the head.
These increases would mark the rebirth of a well-defined star (a newly formed sun), with multiple layers forming around its core.

At the same time that the birth of the star was taking place in the head of the dust cloud, some similar forces and forms of energy were also at work in the tail of the dust and gas cloud, creating or reforming planets moons and other bodies.

The largest of the small fragments made of heavy elements (metals) within the tail because of their gravitational field would start to attract the smaller fragments and the small volumes of gases located close to them within the tail. Some of the largest of the small fragments would have more heavy element small fragment located close to them than others while some would have more small volumes of gases and dust located close to them than others. As the small fragments of heavy elements, dust and gas start to move towards the largest small fragments, they would start to gain momentum; they would then collide with the larger fragments, distributing all their momentum, explosive power and energy to them. As the collisions increase, the momentum and the temperature or heat energy of the now growing fragments would start to increase. As the temperature and mass of the fragments increase they would start to become more defined or organized, taking the shape of well-defined molten spheres, with developing atmospheres. As the collisions continue the now well-defined molten spheres would continue to increase their momentum. And this increase in momentum would set them in motion and because of the gravitational pull of the newly formed sum on the molten spheres; they would be stuck in an orbital path around the sun. This would mark the birth of a planet. If the transfer of momentum during the collisions is the force which set the planets in orbit, then each planet would or should have a different orbital path, that is they won’t be as neatly aligned as in our solar system.

The theory which could tell how they would become neatly aligned, is that during the formation of the solar system another large fast moving cloud made of similar contents, with similar mass and gravitational force passed every close to this dust cloud. Causing four different forces to start to acted on the developing bodies in the tail and in the head of the dust cloud setting them in motion:

1. The pulling force of the head on the bodies in the tail.
2. The force opposing that pulling force of the head.
3. The pulling force of the passing large gas and dust cloud acting on the bodies located in the tail of this dust cloud. This pulling force would act perpendicular to the two previous force and would act at a tangent to the orbital part of the in the tail of this dust cloud.
4. The force opposing pulling force of the other dust cloud.

With the formation of the solar systems’, suns, planets, the moons of the planets would be formed in a similar manner as the planets them self but on a smaller scale.

The hot molten spheres (planets) in orbit around the sun, as the number of collisions decrease the surface of the planets would start to cool but reactions producing heat and kinetic energy would still be taking place within their cores. The spheres would remain hot and molten for a long time; this would give the gravitational fields of the spheres the time and the freedom to pull most of the heavy metallic elements towards their centers. This would then cause the lighter non-metallic elements and the gases to rise and be released on the surfaces of the planets and into their atmospheres. These elements, ions, molecules and compounds released to the surfaces and beyond would start to react with each other, forming thick, rich and dense atmospheres around each planet. As the planets cool their atmospheres would also start to cool. At the same time the reactions within the cores of the planets would cause pressure to start build up; forcing or pushing up heavy metallic elements, this would also cause other gases, molecules and compounds trapped beneath the planets surfaces to be released, causing the atmospheres around the planets to become thicker, and even denser and enriched with new substances.

As the planets cool further, most of the substances within their atmospheres would start to fall back on to the surfaces of the planets, cooling them down even further, causing some of the planets’ surfaces to become hard, forming multiple layers within the planets. As the surface of the planets cool the pressure built up in their cores would cause cracks to start to appear within the upper layers of the planets, which would form geographical continental plates and mountains on the planets. The size of the force and pressure applied to the mountains and plates by the cores of the planets would give each planet its own unique appearance Because the planets would be stuck in orbit around their star or sun, they would develop a long and energy beneficial relationship with the sun, creating series of planetary cycles and season.

With the formation of all these bodies in the galaxy the only thing left is the creating of life.

The pictures above shows that with the explosion of the mega star the entire galaxy would be reconstructed from scratch, using the energy and forces of the big bang. And stars, planets and life would be created in the galaxy again. The whole theory on the destruction and reconstruction of the galaxy is based on the fact that for every action there is an equal and opposite action and on the fact that whenever a reaction takes in the galaxy and in the whole universe no matter, mass or energy is loss or destroyed. That is with the destruction, breaking down or exploding of any star, sun, planet, moon, planetoid, asteroid, comet or meteor anywhere in the universe no matter, mass or energy is loss or destroyed. And after the destruction, breaking down or exploding of these bodies, due to the presents and the availability of the force of gravity the particles of matter or the remnant of the bodies have the ability to reconstruct, reform or recreate the original bodies. These reformations could take millions or billions of years.

The new concepts on the origination of the first simple microscopic single celled organisms on earth (The spark of life).

In summary the first single celled organisms may have been formed from a series of extremely complex reactions or combination processes, involving different substances. Most of the combination processes or the combining of the substances can only take place at extremely high pressures and along with high pressure comes high temperature.

How life was first formed on earth:

The best environments needed for the creation of life. These environments would have to provide the right ingredients, combine these ingredients at the right temperature and pressure, and would have to be able to sustain and nurture this newly formed life. The prefect environment would be the environment on a large mineral and gas (star dust) enriched meteorite, comet or asteroid which is able to with stand the extremely high temperatures and pressures upon entering the earth’s newly formed and dense atmosphere, and the environment in a large mineral and nutrient enriched body of water (an ocean). The meteorite, comet or asteroid entering the earth’s newly formed and dense atmosphere would provide some of the materials and the energy required to combine these materials and the dense atmosphere would provide the rest of these materials, while the large body of water would provide the nutrients and gentle environment needed sustain this newly formed life.

I know that the earth newly formed atmosphere would be very dense; this is based on the fact that currently on the earth there are trillions of organisms. Within these trillions of organisms are trillions of trillions of trillions of compounds, which are made up of trillions of trillions of trillions of trillions of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other atoms and ions. After the earth and its atmosphere were formed most of these trillions of trillions of trillions of trillions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other atoms and ions would be present in the newly formed atmosphere, which make the atmosphere extremely dense. So with the entry of a body, which can provide the energy and pressure, some of these atoms and ions would start to combine to form new and complex substance such as organic substance even simple microscopic organisms. After the meteorite or comet enters the dense atmosphere the combination processes or reactions to form life could take place minutes, seconds, microseconds or even nanoseconds apart. Time line between the reactions could even be so close that it apart that all of them took place at the same time.

The combining or breaking down and splitting up of atoms or elements can or will only take place at high temperatures and pressures in nature or naturally. These fusing and splitting processes of atoms cause nuclear reactions or fusions. The thermo nuclear reaction, which takes place in the cores of suns, is evidence of these processes. The combining or breaking down of ions, molecules and compounds can take place in the present of electrical, heat and other forms of energy.

Think of the creation of life as a chef cooking a piece of beef. The meteor, comet or meteorite would represent the beef. The different element, ions and molecules present on and within the meteorite and within the atmosphere (like nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, iron, carbon dioxide, water, etc.) would represent the different seasonings and spices that the chef would place on the piece of beef to make it more tasty and more palatable. And like how some of the seasonings and spices are not on the beef for nutritious reasons, so also some of the elements and molecules present in the meteorite won’t be involve in the complex chemical processes soon to be taking place on the meteorite (asteroid or comet) now entering the earth’s atmosphere. The earth’s rich and dense atmosphere would be like the pat and the stove needed to cook the piece of beef properly.

The chef has to pay lots attention to the beef when it’s being cooked to make sure it is properly cooked, to make sure it is not burnt, and to make sure the flame is not too high or too low and that the flame from the stove is not put out too early. So also must the electrical energy or electrical discharges in the atmosphere be just right, the atmosphere must also have the right elements and molecules to assist the meteorite, asteroid or comet in the complex combination processes or reactions. The distance from the upper most layer of the atmosphere to the surface the planet or body of large water must be just right, the body of water on the surface of the planet must be large enough to cool the meteorite to save the newly formed life it is carrying, the large body of water must also be rich with nutrients to sustain the newly formed organisms.

In order for the simple inorganic compounds and the elements present in the atmosphere and in the meteorite, comet or asteroid to form life they must be combined in a series of complex chemical processes and reactions at high temperature and pressure.

The building or creation of single celled organisms:

Upon entering the earth’s newly formed rich and dense atmosphere the chemicals on and within the meteorite, asteroid or comet, would begin to react with the chemicals in the atmosphere. These chemical reactions would begin to combine elements and molecules forming new substances, that is, the chemical reactions would turn simple inorganic compounds or substances into more complex inorganic compounds. As the meteorite moves closer and closer towards the earth’s surface, the temperature and pressure of the meteorite and its immediate surroundings would begin to rise and the amount of energy produced by the meteorite would also start to increase. These increases would now cause the complex inorganic compounds to be combined forming simple organic substances. For example the high temperature, energy and pressure, and the high speed of the meteorite would begin to combine simple inorganic substance like carbon atoms, hydrogen molecules, oxygen molecules, nitrogen molecules, chlorine molecules and sulphur atoms to produce complex inorganic compounds such as mineral and organic acids, bases, salts and other compounds. These complex inorganic substances would further be combined through even more complex chemical processes to produce simple organic substance such as amino acids, fatty acids, simple sugars, glycerol, salts and other organic acids.

As the temperature, pressure and energy continue to increase with great intensity the number of reactions would increase, and more complex chemical reactions between the organic and inorganic substances would begin to take place. These complex reactions would mark the beginning of the final combinations and chemical processes to start life.

The simple organic compounds like amino acids, simple sugars and others, along with the complex and simple inorganic compounds would continue to reacted and be combined to create complex organic substances such as complex sugars, complex proteins, and complex fats and oils.

In the early years of the earth, the earth was more compacted and compressed because the pressure built up in the core did not cause it to expand too far as yet. That is the gravitational field was the same size as now, it mass was the same but its volume and density were different from now. Its atmosphere also had a larger volume that is the distance from the upper most layer of the atmosphere to the surface of the planet was larger than now.

Now back to the chef cooking the beef. If the volume and density of the atmosphere was not just right and if there wasn’t a large body of water on the surface of the planet, then either the life creating chemical processes would not be completed and no life would be created or the newly formed organisms would not be able to endure or with stand the harsh conditions of the high temperatures and pressure produced by the meteorite (comet or asteroid) on entering the atmosphere and would immediately be incinerated, vaporized or destroyed. That would be like the chef leaving the beef on the stove too long and it begins to burn or it would be like the stove prematurely out before the beef is properly cooked.

The final combinations and reactions are the most critical, complex and important processes and have to be carried and maintained in just the right way and at just the right time. These final reactions and combination processes would involve all the reactants and products of the pervious processes and reactions.
The final reactions and combinations to form the simple single celled organisms would be a series of complex reactions between the complex organic molecules and compounds themselves and between the complex organic molecules and compounds and the other substances present on the meteorite and in the atmosphere. The complex molecules and compounds would be of proteins, sugars, fats and acids. These final processes and reactions would create the organelles of the organisms and at the some time the organisms themselves. They newly formed organisms would receive the energy they need to start their lives from the energy produced by the meteorite. If the organisms receive too much energy they would immediately be destroy by the intensity of energy. In order for the organisms to remain alive the meteorite must immediately loose its intense temperature and pressure and, become cool. The only way this would be done is if the fast moving and hot meteorite comes to rest or lands in a large nutrient enrich body of water (such as a ocean).

The newly formed simple organisms now in the large body would feed and sustain, and carry out most of the life processes through the processes of diffusion and osmosis.

Note that all the simple and complex reactions and combination processes to form the simple microscopic organisms on and within the comet, asteroid or meteorite in the earth’s very dense atmosphere would take place at the microscopic level. That is you would not see big trunks or pieces of organic materials present on meteorite. Instead you would have to use microscopes to look for the evidence that there is organic material present.

Some logical questions about the chemistry of life:

Say a particular planet has an extremely dense atmosphere that is an atmosphere rich in or with a high concentration of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen atoms, molecules and ions and then say a comet, asteroid or meteorite were to enter the particular atmosphere. Upon entering this atmosphere the comet, asteroid or meteorite would immediately start to release a large amount of different forms of energy, which would cause the high concentration of atoms, molecules and ions in, on and around the meteorite to start receiving some of or most of that energy, this would then cause the atoms, molecules and ions in, on and around the meteorite to start to collide at high speeds. The high energy colliding atoms, molecules and ions would then start to for bonds between each other, thus creating millions or even billions of inorganic molecules and compounds at the microscopic level in, on and around the descending meteorite.

So isn’t it logical, that if the energy filled meteorite continues to provide the atoms, molecules, ions, inorganic molecules and compounds with energy that they would continue to collide even more frequently creating even more complex bonds between each other, thus creating millions more of new substances and compounds?

So isn’t it also possible that some of the millions of new and more complex substances and compounds could be simple organic substances and compounds? And if these simple organic substances and compounds were to start to receive energy the descending meteorite, isn’t it possible that they could start to collide with each other and the other substances combining to create more complex organic substances and compounds? And if the complex organic substances and compounds were to start receiving energy isn’t it possible that they would start to collide creating bonds causing them to start to combine with each other and working together to start to create simple cell organelles (such as membranes, cytoplasm mixtures, etc)?

So isn’t it possible that the simple cell organelles along with the organic and inorganic substances and compounds and along with energy from the descending meteorite could start to join together in an organized and orderly way at the microscopic level to create simple microscopic organisms. And if these newly formed simple microscopic organisms along with the meteorite or its pieces were to fall in large body of water (ocean) isn’t it possible that some of the organisms could survive and become the first organisms to live on that particular planet.

The newest concepts on evolution:

With the creation of the organisms, the organisms along with their environment and the materials in their environment have the ability to change their chemical structure and with the ability to have their chemical structure changed, the organisms can also have their physical structure change to better adapt to their changing environment. The organisms can have their physical and chemical structures change to find more efficient ways of making use of their environment and the energy in their environment and also to find more efficient ways of carrying out the life processes (feeding, growing, moving, responding to stimuli, etc). But the ability to have their physical and chemical structures changed can some time be the downfall of an entire species. Organisms have the ability to retain or record the situation they go through every day or over a period off time and this along with their genetic information can be passed on to their offspring. If changes occur in the environment of the offspring they also have the ability to have physical and chemical structures change to be more efficient for their survival. The chemical and physical changes in the organisms and their offspring are what are known as evolving or mutating. The organisms and their offspring will continue to evolve and mutate until the state of the physical and chemical structures of their bodies are well suited to match the changes in their environments. With the inherited information from their parents the evolved or mutated offspring can have their bodies properly maintained and they can better carry out the life processes, and also stay alive to increase the population of their species.

The young researcher is also working on new ways to power the electric engines of cars. Cars have an abundance of mechanical energy (in place such as the mechanical energy produced by the crankshaft, drive shaft, differential, etc) and a lot of this energy is being wasted but Antoine has found a way to convert this excess mechanical energy to electrical energy. This electrical energy would be obtained through a series of gears connected to the crankshaft, drive shaft or differential. These fast spinning gears would be connected to a series of magnets, these spinning magnets would then induce the flow of electrons within a series of coils, and these mobile electrons within the coils would power the engines. The gears and magnets would be rotating hundreds or even thousands of time per second. These new type of engines would run or operate with out intake or exhaust; it would run strictly on recycled mechanical, magnetic and electrical energy. Antoine’s theories on the universe has been getting great reviews from other researchers and scientist, so they have all decided that your media house should be the first one to get the big scoop.

The diagram above shows a “Gear System” which can provide an almost endless supply of energy (the flow of electrons).

Rotations per second for each gear if gear 1 rotates once in one second:

1. Gear 1= 1 to the zero power
" = 1 rotation/second

2. Gear 2 = 5 to the first power
" = 5 rotations/second

3. Gear 3 = 5 to the second power
" = 25 rotations/second

4. Gear 4 = 5 to the third power
" = 125 rotations/second

5. Gear 2 = 5 to the fourth power
" = 625 rotations/second

All the gears are the same size. One complete rotation of gear 1 causes gear 2 to rotate 5 times, one complete rotation of gear 2 causes gear 3 to rotate 5 times, one complete rotation of gear 3 causes gear 4 to rotate 5 times, and one complete rotation of gear 4 causes gear 5 to rotate 5 times.

Therefore, if gear 1 rotates once in one second it would cause gear 2 to rotate 5 times in that same second, then the 5 rotations of gear 2 would cause gear 3 to rotate 25 times in that same second, then the 25 rotations of gear 3 would cause gear 4 to rotate 125 times in that same second, then the 125 rotations of gear 4 would cause gear 5 along with the magnet to rotate 625 times in that same second. The fast rotating magnet would then start to induce or start to cause a rapid flow of electrons within the coils suspended just above it. The electric current being produced by the coils could then be used to power many different electric devices.

The rate at which the electrons move (flow) or the amount of electric current produced by the coils depend on the amount of gears (that is whether it is five gears or 20 gears in the system), on the strength and size of the magnet and its magnetic field, on the rotatory speed of the gears furthest from gear 1 or closest to the magnet (that is the amount of rotations per second), on how much one rotation of a gear will cause another to rotate (that is if one rotation of gear 1 will cause gear 2 to rotate 5 times or if it will cause it to rotate 10 times) and it depends on the rotatory speed of the magnet and the amount of magnets.

If the rotation of gear 1 is being caused by an electric device which it itself is being powered by the electric energy being produced by the coils, then the electric device could keep providing energy for itself forever by spinning the gears unless because of the intense amount of friction between the components within the electric device and between the gears start to cause over heating, then it could not keep providing itself with energy.

In cars of the future the gear system described above could be used to power the electric engine, and because these cars would provide energy for them selves, thus eliminating the need for fossil fuel, intake and exhaust, they would have only positive effects on the environment.

The gear system could be mounted underneath the car, with gear 1 placed at the back of the car being caused to rotate by the differential gear, which is being rotated by the drive shaft. The electric energy being produced by the coils would then provide the electric engine at the front of the car necessary amount of energy it needs. The powerful engine would then cause the drive shaft to rotate, causing the differential gear to rotate which would cause the car’s wheels to turn and at the same time cause gear 1 to rotate.

The theory on the almost endless supply of energy which could be produced comes from the fact that, “E = MC squared.”

Where E = the amount of energy which can be produced coils.

M = the mass of the insulated wires and the soft iron core of the coils.

And C = the speed of light. Light can travel 3 times 10 to the fifth power km in 1 second.

An approximation of the amount of energy the coils could produce over along period of time with the assistance of the gear system is:

The estimated mass of the wires and iron making up the coils is 3kg.
 E = 3kg times (3 times 100000000 m/s) squared
E = 3 times 9 times 10 to the sixteenth power
E = (27 times 10 to the sixteenth power) Joules

That is 270,000,000,000,000 kilojoules of heat and electric energy is stored within the insulated pieces of copper wires and the soft iron cores making up the coils which small amount of the energy can be released by my method when needed.

A more in-depth look at the “Gear System”

We all know that magnetic and mechanical energy can be change to electrical energy using coils.

In the gear system when the magnet spins or rotates its magnetic field lines or flux spins or rotates along with it, which will produce a induced current in the coil that are so close to it. The faster the magnet and its magnetic field rotate per second the greater the current produced or generated per second. In the gear system if the magnet spin 5 to the fifth power or 3125 times per second more current would be generated than if the magnet was spinning 5 to the fourth power or 625 times per second.

Experiments with a bicycle dynamo rotates at different speeds show that the induced e.m.f. in the circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux, or field lines, linking the circuit. This is called Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

A bicycle dynamo is use as a generator of current.
My gear system is also used as a generator of current.

The wires leaving the coils in the gear system are connected to step up transformer to increase the e.m.f. or current going to the engine. This will ensure that the engine and the rechargeable batteries get the maximum amount of energy they need. When excess energy is produced at any point by the gear system, the excess energy will be used to charge the batteries. These rechargeable batteries will be used for activities which requires a small amount of energy such as to start the car’s engine up and to power the car and its engine when it is traveling at extremely slow speed (like when the car is in traffic).

The gear in detailed

Each gear in the gear system consists of two parts, an ‘A’ part and a ‘B’ part. The ‘A’ and ‘B’ part then joined together to form one gear. The diagram above shows the two parts joined together.

The circumference of the ‘A’ part of each gear is 5 times greater than the circumference of the ‘B’ part of each gear. That is the ‘A’ part of each gear has 5 times more teeth than the ‘B’ part of each gear.

So when the ‘A’ part of gear 1 comes in contact with the ‘B’ part of gear 2 in the gear system causing it to spin, one rotation of gear 1 is able to cause 5 rotates of gear 2.

Even if the circumference of the ‘A’ part of each gear was only 2 times greater than the circumference of the ‘B’ part in the gear system. You could used eleven gear with the magnet attached to the eleventh gear and if gear 1 rotates once per second you could still get gear eleven with the magnet to rotate up to 2 to the tenth power time per second which would be 1024 time in one second.

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The secrets of the universe Written by: Kconnip

Source: http://www.articletrader.com

Oil for Light

Tue, 25 Sep 2007 00:00:00 -0500

Over 70,000 years ago, prehistoric man discovered that oils can burn brightly for long periods of time. This discovery was probably made when people cooked animals over the fire and noticed that the dripping animal fat soaked the wood and made it burn longer. They learned to place moss, wood and other organic fibers into a stone with a hollowed out place to hold the oils. They used animal fats, fish oil, whale oil, beeswax or vegetable oils pressed from sesame seeds, nuts and olives. They soon discovered that fires would burn even longer if they burned fibers with one end dipped in the oil, much like a wick. It didn’t take long for them to discover that they could easily use petroleum which they could gather from oil seeps or pools on top of the ground.
Early Egyptians are credited with creating the first stone bowl lamps. They laid a wick over the lip and could burn oils from within the bowl. These bowls were hand-carved from rock and extremely rare. Later, a little over 2,000 years ago, they discovered how to make bowls from pottery and lamps could be widely produced. They also started pinching the edges together to make a neck which could hold the wick in place.
Later the Greeks would improve the design by creating a lid to place over the bowl. They left a small hole for the oil and a spout for the wick. The lid helped to prevent spills and also helped control the flow of air into the lamp. This made the oil last much longer. By Roman times, virtually every household utilized oil lamps. Most were made of clay or bronze by this time. A few were made of glass, gold or silver. Around this time is when more elaborate lamps were being produced. They featured animals, people, foods and even gods.
Oil was also used to create flaming torches to light hallways and large rooms. Torches were mounted in sconces on walls. They were usually bundles of sticks dipped in pitch, or tar. They were actually only used for special events or dinners. Usually people used oil lamps.
In the 1780’s, the Argand lamp was invented by Aime Argand. He realized that you could make a lamp burn at least ten times brighter than a candle. He accomplished this by placing the wick in the center of the lamp and covering it with a glass chimney to control air flow. It turned out to be a very clean burning alternative to all other lamps produced up to this date, and soon revolutionized home life by brightly lighting houses at night for the first time in history. The Argand lamp burned whale oil until the production of kerosene from petroleum came about seventy years after the Argand lamp’s invention. Refining oil into kerosene changed everything and led to the beginning of the oil age. It quickly replaced whale oil as the main source of fuel in North America and Europe. Companies like Western Pipeline Corporation still drill today to provide us with an endless list of products derived from oil. Make-up, plastics, carpet fibers, clothes dyes, ink and lightweight eyeglasses are all derived from oil. So, the next time you take an aspirin, wear tennis shoes or dye your hair, you can thank prehistoric man for inspiring it all over 70,000 years ago in his quest for light.

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About the Author: Mickey Horn is the Executive VP of Investor Relations of Western Pipeline Corporation. Western Pipeline Corp specializes in identifying, acquiring and developing existing, producing reserves on behalf of its individual clients.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com